The sessile nature of plant life generates a constant exposure to environmental factors that exert positive and negative effects on plant growth and development. One of the major impediments facing modern agriculture is adverse environmental conditions. One important factor which causes significant crop loss is heat stress. Temperature stress greatly reduces grain yield in many cereal crops such as maize, wheat, and barley. Yield decreases due to heat stress range from 7 to 35% in the cereals of world-wide importance.
A number of studies have identified likely physiological consequences of heat stress. Early work by Hunter et al. (Hunter, R. B., Tollenaar, M., and Breuer, C. M. [1977] Can. J. Plant Sci. 57:1127-1133) using growth chamber conditions showed that temperature decreased the duration of grain filling in maize. Similar results in which the duration of grain filling was adversely altered by increased temperatures were identified by Tollenaar and Bruulsema (Tollenaar, M. and Bruulsema, T. W. [1988] Can. J. Plant Sci. 68:935-940). Badu-Apraku et al. (Badu-Apraku, B., Hunter, R. B., and Tollenaar, M. [1983] Can. J. Plant. Sci. 63:357-363) measured a marked reduction in the yield of maize plants grown under the day/night temperature regime of 35/15° C. compared to growth in a 25/15° C. temperature regime. Reduced yields due to increased temperatures is also supported by historical as well as climatological studies (Thompson, L. M. [1986] Agron. J. 78:649-653; Thompson, L. M. [1975] Science 188:535-541; Chang, J. [1981] Agricul. Metero. 24:253-262; and Conroy, J. P., Seneweera, S., Basra, A. S., Rogers, G., and Nissen-Wooller, B. [1994] Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 21:741-758).
That the physiological processes of the developing seed are adversely affected by heat stress is evident from studies using an in vitro kernel culture system (Jones, R. J., Gengenbach, B. G., and Cardwell, V. B. [1981] Crop Science 21:761-766; Jones, R. J., Ouattar, S., and Crookston, R. K. [1984] Crop Science 24:133-137; and Cheikh, N., and Jones, R. J. [1995] Physiol. Plant. 95:59-66). Maize kernels cultured at the above-optimum temperature of 35° C. exhibited a dramatic reduction in weight.
Work with wheat identified the loss of soluble starch synthase (SSS) activity as a hallmark of the wheat endosperm's response to heat stress (Hawker, J. S. and Jenner, C. F. [1993] Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 20:197-209; Denyer, K., Hylton, C. M., and Smith, A. M. [1994] Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 21:783-789; Jenner, C. F. [1994] Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 21:791-806). Additional studies with SSS of wheat endosperm show that it is heat labile (Rijven, A. H. G. C. [1986] Plant Physiol. 81:448-453; Keeling, P. L., Bacon, P. J., Holt, D. C. [1993] Planta. 191:342-348; Jenner, C. F., Denyer, K., and Guerin, J. [1995] Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 22:703-709).
The roles of SSS and ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGP) under heat stress conditions in maize is less clear. (AGP) catalyzes the conversion of ATP and α-glucose-1-phosphate to ADP-glucose and pyrophosphate. ADP-glucose is used as a glycosyl donor in starch biosynthesis by plants and in glycogen biosynthesis by bacteria. The importance of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase as a key enzyme in the regulation of starch biosynthesis was noted in the study of starch deficient mutants of maize (Zea mays) endosperm (Tsai, C. Y., and Nelson, Jr., O. E. [1966] Science 151:341-343; Dickinson, D. B., J. Preiss [1969] Plant Physiol. 44:1058-1062).
Ou-Lee and Setter (Ou-Lee, T. and Setter, T. L. [1985] Plant Physiol. 79:852-855) examined the effects of temperature on the apical or tip regions of maize ears. With elevated temperatures, AGP activity was lower in apical kernels when compared to basal kernels during the time of intense starch deposition. In contrast, in kernels developed at normal temperatures, AGP activity was similar in apical and basal kernels during this period. However, starch synthase activity during this period was not differentially affected in apical and basal kernels. Further, heat-treated apical kernels exhibited an increase in starch synthase activity over control. This was not observed with AGP activity. Singletary et al. (Singletary, G. W., Banisadr, R., and Keeling, P. L. [1993] Plant Physiol. 102: 6 (suppl).; Singletary, G. W., Banisadra, R., Keeling, P. L. [1994] Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 21:829-841) using an in vitro culture system quantified the effect of various temperatures during the grain fill period. Seed weight decreased steadily as temperature increased from 22-36° C. A role for AGP in yield loss is also supported by work from Duke and Doehlert (Duke, E. R. and Doehlert, D. C. [1996] Environ. Exp. Botany. 36:199-208).
Work by Keeling et al. (1994, supra) quantified SSS activity in maize and wheat using Q10 analysis, and showed that SSS is an important control point in the flux of carbon into starch.
In vitro biochemical studies with AGP and SSS clearly show that both enzymes are heat labile. Maize endosperm AGP loses 96% of its activity when heated at 57° C. for five minutes (Hannah, L. C., Tuschall, D. M., and Mans, R. J. [1980] Genetics 95:961-970). This is in contrast to potato AGP which is fully stable at 70° C. (Sowokinos, J. R. and Preiss, J. [1982] Plant Physiol. 69:1459-1466; Okita, T. W., Nakata, P. A., Anderson, J. M., Sowokinos, J., Morell, J., and Preiss, J. [1990] Plant Physiol. 93:785-90). Heat inactivation studies with SSS showed that it is also labile at higher temperatures, and kinetic studies determined that the Km value for amylopectin rose exponentially when temperature increased from 25-45° C. (Jenner et al., 1995, supra).
Biochemical and genetic evidence has identified AGP as a key enzyme in starch biosynthesis in higher plants and glycogen biosynthesis in E. coli (Preiss, J. and Romeo, T. [1994] Progress in Nuc. Acid Res. and Mol Biol. 47:299-329; Preiss, J. and Sivak, M. [1996] “Starch synthesis in sinks and sources,” In Photoassimilate distribution in plants and crops: source-sink relationships. Zamski, E., ed., Marcil Dekker Inc. pp. 139-168). AGP catalyzes what is viewed as the initial step in the starch biosynthetic pathway with the product of the reaction being the activated glucosyl donor, ADPglucose. This is utilized by starch synthase for extension of the polysaccharide polymer (reviewed in Hannah, L. Curtis [1996] “Starch synthesis in the maize endosperm,” In: Advances in Cellular and Molecular Biology of Plants, Vol. 4. B. A. Larkins and I. K. Vasil (eds.). Cellular and Molecular Biology of Plant Seed Development. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands).
Initial studies with potato AGP showed that expression in E. coli yielded an enzyme with allosteric and kinetic properties very similar to the native tuber enzyme (Iglesias, A., Barry, G. F., Meyer, C., Bloksberg, L., Nakata, P., Greene, T., Laughlin, M. J., Okita, T. W., Kishore, G. M., and Preiss, J. [1993] J. Biol. Chem. 268:1081-86; Ballicora, M. A., Laughlin, M. J., Fu, Y., Okita, T. W., Barry, G. F., and Preiss, J. [1995] Plant Physiol. 109:245-251). Greene et al. (Greene, T. W., Chantler, S. E., Kahn, M. L., Barry, G. F., Preiss, J., and Okita, T. W. [1996] Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 93:1509-1513; Greene, T. W., Woodbury, R. L., and Okita, T. W. [1996] Plant Physiol. (112:1315-1320) showed the usefulness of the bacterial expression system in their structure-function studies with the potato AGP. Multiple mutations important in mapping allosteric and substrate binding sites were identified (Okita, T. W., Greene, T. W., Laughlin, M. J., Salamone, P., Woodbury, R., Choi, S., Ito, H., Kavakli, H., and Stephens, K. [1996] “Engineering Plant Starches by the Generation of Modified Plant Biosynthetic Enzymes,” In Engineering Crops for Industrial End Uses, Shewry, P. R., Napier, J. A., and Davis, P., eds., Portland Press Ltd., London).
AGP enzymes have been isolated from both bacteria and plants. Bacterial AGP consists of a homotetramer, while plant AGP from photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic tissues is a heterotetramer composed of two different subunits. The plant enzyme is encoded by two different genes, with one subunit being larger than the other. This feature has been noted in a number of plants. The AGP subunits in spinach leaf have molecular weights of 54 kDa and 51 kDa, as estimated by SDS-PAGE. Both subunits are immunoreactive with antibody raised against purified AGP from spinach leaves (Copeland, L., J. Preiss (1981) Plant Physiol. 68:996-1001; Morell, M., M. Bloon, V. Knowles, J. Preiss [1988] J. Bio. Chem. 263:633). Immunological analysis using antiserum prepared against the small and large subunits of spinach leaf showed that potato tuber AGP is also encoded by two genes (Okita et al., 1990, supra). The cDNA clones of the two subunits of potato tuber (50 and 51 kDa) have also been isolated and sequenced (Muller-Rober, B. T., J. Kossmann, L. C. Hannah, L. Willmitzer, U. Sounewald [1990] Mol. Gen. Genet. 224:136-146; Nakata, P. A., T. W. Greene, J. M. Anderson, B. J. Smith-White, T. W. Okita, J. Preiss [1991] Plant Mol. Biol. 17:1089-1093). The large subunit of potato tuber AGP is heat stable (Nakata et al. [1991], supra).
As Hannah and Nelson (Hannah, L. C., O. E. Nelson (1975) Plant Physiol. 55:297-302; Hannah, L. C., and Nelson, Jr., O. E. [1976] Biochem. Genet. 14:547-560) postulated, both Shrunken-2 (Sh2) (Bhave, M. R., S. Lawrence, C. Barton, L. C. Hannah [1990] Plant Cell 2:581-588) and Brittle-2 (Bt2) (Bae, J. M., M. Giroux, L. C. Hannah [1990] Maydica 35:317-322) are structural genes of maize endosperm ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase. Sh2 and Bt2 encode the large subunit and small subunit of the enzyme, respectively. From cDNA sequencing, Sh2 and Bt2 proteins have predicted molecular weight of 57,179 Da (Shaw, J. R., L. C. Hannah [1992] Plant Physiol. 98:1214-1216) and 52,224 Da, respectively. The endosperm is the site of most starch deposition during kernel development in maize. Sh2 and Bt2 maize endosperm mutants have greatly reduced starch levels corresponding to deficient levels of AGP activity. Mutations of either gene have been shown to reduce AGP activity by about 95% (Tsai and Nelson, 1966, supra; Dickinson and Preiss, 1969, supra). Furthermore, it has been observed that enzymatic activities increase with the dosage of functional wild type Sh2 and Bt2 alleles, whereas mutant enzymes have altered kinetic properties. AGP is the rate limiting step in starch biosynthesis in plants. Stark et al. placed a mutant form of E. coli AGP in potato tuber and obtained a 35% increase in starch content (Stark et al. [1992] Science 258:287).
The cloning and characterization of the genes encoding the AGP enzyme subunits have been reported for various plants. These include Sh2 cDNA (Bhave et al., 1990, supra), Sh2 genomic DNA (Shaw and Hannah, 1992, supra), and Bt2 cDNA (Bae et al., 1990, supra) from maize; small subunit cDNA (Anderson, J. M., J. Hnilo, R. Larson, T. W. Okita, M. Morell, J. Preiss [1989] J. Biol. Chem. 264:12238-12242) and genomic DNA (Anderson, J. M., R. Larson, D. Landencia, W. T. Kim, D. Morrow, T. W. Okita, J. Preiss [1991] Gene 97:199-205) from rice; and small and large subunit cDNAs from spinach leaf (Morell et al., 1988, supra) and potato tuber (Muller-Rober et al., 1990, supra; Nakata, P. A., Greene, T. W., Anderson, J. W., Smith-White, B. J., Okita, T. W., and Preiss, J. [1991] Plant Mol. Biol. 17:1089-1093). In addition, cDNA clones have been isolated from wheat endosperm and leaf tissue (Olive, M. R., R. J. Ellis, W. W. Schuch [1989] Plant Physiol. Mol. Biol. 12:525-538) and Arabidopsis thaliana leaf (Lin, T., Caspar, T., Sommerville, C. R., and Preiss, J. [1988] Plant Physiol. 88:1175-1181).
AGP functions as an allosteric enzyme in all tissues and organisms investigated to date. The allosteric properties of AGP were first shown to be important in E. coli. A glycogen-overproducing E. coli mutant was isolated and the mutation mapped to the structural gene for AGP, designated as glyC. The mutant E. coli, known as glyC-16, was shown to be more sensitive to the activator, fructose 1,6 bisphosphate, and less sensitive to the inhibitor, cAMP (Preiss, J. [1984] Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 419-458). Although plant AGP's are also allosteric, they respond to different effector molecules than bacterial AGP's. In plants, 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA) functions as an activator while phosphate (PO4) serves as an inhibitor (Dickinson and Preiss, 1969, supra).
Using an in vivo mutagenesis system created by the Ac-mediated excision of a Ds transposable element fortuitously located close to a known activator binding site, Giroux et al. (Giroux, M. J., Shaw, J., Barry, G., Cobb, G. B., Greene, T., Okita, T. W., and Hannah, L. C. [1996] Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 93:5824-5829) were able to generate site-specific mutants in a functionally important region of maize endosperm AGP. One mutant, Rev 6, contained a tyrosine-serine insert in the large subunit of AGP and conditioned a 11-18% increase in seed weight. In addition, published international application WO 01/64928 teaches that various characteristics, such as seed number, plant biomass, Harvest Index etc., can be increased in plants transformed with a polynucleotide encoding a large subunit of maize AGP containing the Rev6 mutation.